An overview of the current animal models of Marburg virus disease for countermeasure development

Introduction: Marburg virus disease (MVD) occurs in sporadic and unpredictable outbreaks, making conventional human efficacy studies of vaccines and therapeutics impractical. This review summarizes animal models of MVD and their utility for pathogenesis research and evaluation of vaccines and therapeutics. Areas covered: Herein, the authors review rodent, ferret, and nonhuman primate models of MVD infection, focusing on how each reflects human disease and supports different stages of countermeasure development. Furthermore, the authors discuss their virological and pathological features and major strengths and limitations, with emphasis on the influences of the host background, viral adaptation, inoculation route, and study design on translational relevance. A literature search was conducted using PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Expert opinion: Since no single model fully captures human MVD, model choice should be guided by specific scientific or translational questions rather than human relevance alone. Stepwise evaluation is required, with mice supporting mechanistic and early screening, other rodents and ferrets enabling candidate refinement, and nonhuman primates providing definitive efficacy evaluation. Although some models with host-adapted viruses impose limitations, they remain useful when their biological consequences are defined. Animal models are indispensable for MVD drug development, and further harmonization of strains, endpoints, and reporting standards will improve their predictive value.