Neighborhood Deprivation Is Associated with Lower Levels of Serum Carotenoids among Adults Participating in the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Objective: This study tested the hypothesis that neighborhood deprivation will be associated with lower levels of serum carotenoids in comparison with wealthy residential areas. Design: Cross-sectional, nationally representative survey data were used to assess the relationship between neighborhood level socioeconomic status and serum carotenoids. Subjects: Seventeen thousand two participants aged 17 years and older from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey were linked with 1990 census data. Main outcome measures: Serum levels of lycopene, β-carotene, α-carotene, lutein/zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin. Statistical analysis: Multivariate linear regression was used to model the association of serum carotenoids and neighborhood deprivation, which is a summary index of 11 indicators for tract level socioeconomic status. Adjustments are made for individual level age, sex, years of education, household income, employment, race/ethnicity, body mass index, serum cotinine, alcohol use, physical activity, and serum cholesterol. Results: Multivariate analysis revealed a negative and statistically significant association between high levels of neighborhood deprivation and β-carotene (β=-2.98 μg/dL [-0.06 μmol/L], P=0.00), α-carotene (β=-1.28 μg/dL [-0.02 μmol/L], P=<0.0001), lutein/zeaxanthin (-1.69 μg/dL [-0.03 μmol/L], P=0.00, β-cryptoxanthin (β=-1.34 μg/dL [-0.02 μmol/L], P<0.0001), and total carotenoids (β=-8.20 μg/dL, P=<0.0001). Lycopene was not related to neighborhood deprivation. Adjusted mean levels of carotenoids for high deprivation neighborhoods were lower than neighborhoods with low deprivation: β-carotene=8.72 μg/dL [0.16 μmol/L] vs 20.64 μg/dL [0.38 μmol/L], α-carotene=0.44 μg/dL [0.008 μmol/L] vs 5.56 μg/dL [0.10 μmol/L], lutein/zeaxanthin=13.79 μg/dL [0.24 μmol/L] vs 20.55 μg/dL [0.36 μmol/L], β-cryptoxanthin=4.57 μg/dL [0.08 μmol/L] vs 9.93 μg/dL [0.18 μmol/L], lycopene=22.07 μg/dL [0.41 μmol/L] vs 25.63 μg/dL [0.48 μmol/L], and total=49.56 μg/dL vs 82.36 μg/dL. Conclusions: Neighborhood deprivation was associated with lower serum levels of carotenoids. There was a substantial disparity between low deprivation and high deprivation residential areas with respect to fruit and vegetable intake.